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Brain stem --- Brainstem --- Brain --- Surgery.

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Auditory. --- Brainstem. --- Diagnosis. --- Horse. --- Injuries. --- Injury. --- Response.

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The trigemino-cardiac reflex (TCR) is a well established brain-stem reflex and commonly manifests as bradycardia, asystole, hypotension and / or apnea. This phenomenon was extensively explored in the recent past. However, the area related to its exact bio-physiological mechanism, neuro-anatomical linkages, clinical implications, its role in non neurological events and future directions should need to be further investigated. Therefore, this present research topic on TCR would mainly focus on various aspects of TCR and present a comprehensive and exhaustive overview about a phenomena that gains more and more interest during the last few years. Our goal is to present models about the different aspects of the TCR to develop in-depth understanding of TCR.

hypotension --- trigeminocardiac reflex --- brainstem --- bradycardia --- outcome

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This illuminating and comprehensive work offers readers a thorough and detailed perspective of brainstem surgery as well as state-of-the-art discussion on the diagnosis and management of related pathologies. Hailing from around the globe and currently practicing in various countries in Asia, Europe, and North America, the expert authors of this work represent a wide range of disciplines and experiences, providing a comprehensive, interdisciplinary overview of brainstem surgery. Indeed, brainstem pathologies remain the most challenging to manage surgically due to the high eloquence and the deep and hidden location of the brainstem, turning surgical treatment of brainstem pathologies into one of the most complex and demanding fields in neurosurgery. This vital book guides readers through this very complex anatomical territory in which any pathology leads to grave consequences. Taking readers through the depth of the complex architecture of the brainstem in the clinical context, and emphasizing the evidence-based treatment of different brainstem pathologies while also reviewing what the future holds for the management of these pathologies, the book presents a review of state-of-the-art preoperative assessment modalities and surgical. The book covers brainstem-related pathologies from infancy to adulthood, and the text is enriched with diagnostic and surgical images that cover almost all types of brainstem lesions. The book is written in a way that neurosurgery specialists and fellows will feel comfortable navigating throughout its contents, and the enthusiastic neurosurgery resident will find this book to be a valuable guide. A major contribution to the clinical literature, Brainstem Tumors: Diagnosis and Management will also serve as a reference for anyone involved in the treatment of patients suffering from brainstem pathologies, including medical team members such as adult and pediatric neurosurgeons, neurologists, neurooncologists, residents and fellows, clinical neuropsychologists, electrophysiologists, neuroradiologists, and medical students who have a passion to learn about the assessment and surgical management of patients with brainstem diseases.

Neurosurgery. --- Neurology . --- Neurology. --- Brain Stem Neoplasms. --- Neurosurgical Procedures. --- Nerves --- Neurosurgery --- Procedures, Neurosurgical --- Surgical Procedures, Neurologic --- Neurologic Surgical Procedure --- Neurologic Surgical Procedures --- Neurosurgical Procedure --- Procedure, Neurologic Surgical --- Procedure, Neurosurgical --- Procedures, Neurologic Surgical --- Surgical Procedure, Neurologic --- Nervous System --- Brain Stem Neoplasms, Primary --- Brain Stem Tumors --- Brainstem Neoplasms --- Brainstem Neoplasms, Primary --- Brainstem Tumors --- Medullary Tumors --- Midbrain Tumors --- Neoplasms, Brain Stem --- Neoplasms, Brainstem --- Neoplasms, Brainstem, Primary --- Neoplasms, Medullary --- Neoplasms, Mesencephalic --- Neoplasms, Midbrain --- Neoplasms, Pontine --- Pontine Tumors --- Primary Brain Stem Neoplasms --- Primary Brainstem Neoplasms --- Medullary Neoplasms --- Mesencephalic Neoplasms --- Midbrain Neoplasms --- Pontine Neoplasms --- Brain Stem Neoplasm --- Brain Stem Tumor --- Brainstem Neoplasm --- Brainstem Neoplasm, Primary --- Brainstem Tumor --- Medullary Neoplasm --- Medullary Tumor --- Mesencephalic Neoplasm --- Midbrain Neoplasm --- Midbrain Tumor --- Neoplasm, Brain Stem --- Neoplasm, Brainstem --- Neoplasm, Medullary --- Neoplasm, Mesencephalic --- Neoplasm, Midbrain --- Neoplasm, Pontine --- Neoplasm, Primary Brainstem --- Neoplasms, Primary Brainstem --- Pontine Neoplasm --- Pontine Tumor --- Primary Brainstem Neoplasm --- Tumor, Brain Stem --- Tumor, Medullary --- Tumor, Midbrain --- Tumor, Pontine --- Tumors, Medullary --- Tumors, Midbrain --- Tumors, Pontine --- Medicine --- Nervous system --- Neuropsychiatry --- Surgery --- surgery --- Diseases --- Brain stem. --- Brainstem --- Brain

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The brainstem is a conduit connecting higher brain centers, cerebellum and spinal cord and provides the main sensory and motor innervation to the face, head and neck via the cranial nerves. It plays a pivotal role in the regulation of respiration, locomotion, posture, balance, arousal (alertness, awareness and consciousness), sensory information processing (nociception, etc.), autonomic functions (including control of bowel, bladder, blood pressure and heart rate) and is responsible for the regulation of numerous reflexes including swallowing, coughing and vomiting. It is controlled by higher brain centers originating from cortical and subcortical regions including the basal ganglia and diencephalon as well as feedback loops from the cerebellum and spinal cord. A modulatory control of brainstem output can be accomplished by affecting individual neurons and consequently, the operation of neural microcircuits and behavior. This is achieved by altering cellular excitability, synaptic transmission (release probability, postsynaptic receptor responsiveness, thus altering synaptic strength and efficacy) and network properties. Such dynamic control provides flexibility of the nervous system to adapt neural output according to the functional requirements and/or demands of the individual to achieve the desired behavioral state in a changing environment. Neuromodulation can be achieved by the “classical” neurotransmitters glutamate and GABA (gamma-amino butyric acid) by primary excitation and inhibition of the “anatomical network”, but can also be achieved through the use of transmitters acting on G- protein coupled receptors. Such neuromodulators include the monoamines (serotonin, noradrenaline and dopamine), acetylcholine, but also glutamate and GABA. In addition, neuropeptides and purines act as neuromodulators. Other chemical mediators such as nitric oxide and growth factors may also have similar actions. The aim of this Research Topic is to highlight recent advances in our understanding of the intrinsic and extrinsic neuromodulatory systems affecting brainstem function from the anatomical, physiological and pharmacological perspective and to emphasize how these advances strengthen, modify or challenge existing conceptual models of sensorimotor and autonomic control.

brainstem --- neuromodulation --- locomotion --- neurotransmitters and motor control --- autonomic function --- spinal cord injury --- movement-related disorders --- pain